Audio has been used as a teaching medium, as radio waves were the first technology to enable many people to share knowledge at once. Over time, audio has remained an easily accessible tool for education through podcasts and radio. Audio has remained high on the list as a medium that can reach learners wherever they are. Audio also accelerates as an effective medium for cost-effective delivery and general accessibility. Accessibility of audio has improved with digital audio streaming, which can include transcripts.

Some Rules of Thumb for the Medium

• Before recording, run a sound check to ensure there is no background noise.

• When used with a visual medium, it should enhance the visual, not necessarily repeat it. It should enhance the visual description for the learner. 

  • Consider the learner’s cognitive load. Too much information presented at once, especially when multiple formats are competing for attention, can overwhelm the learner and reduce understanding.

Specific Media Format: AUDIO

    Description: 

• Audio instruction can be delivered via audio broadcast, radio broadcast, MP3, CD, Casset, or other audio only apps such as podcasts.

Relating to Instructional Objectives

Characteristics: 

• Delivery of sound communication that can be spoken language, music, discussion, or interviews that conveys learning through audio that can be either live or recorded and is without visual assistance of video or stills.

Application to Types of Learning 

Cognitive Objectives:

• Narrating imagery and process

• Modeling a process or situation with a simplified version to scaffold learning

• Audio-track reinforcement of content and mood with sound effects, music, and tone of voice

Psychomotor Objectives.

• Minimal use of manipulations other than the device on which the broadcast is delivered.

• Can potentially have psychomotor objectives if the lesson involves interactive instruction, such as a song or physical activity delivered via the lesson.

Affective Objectives:

• Receiving: Students demonstrate by actively listening during the lesson

• Valuing: Students express empathy toward a character's situation in a podcast episode.

• Organizing: Students advocate for a cause discussed in an interview.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Media Format

Advantages:

• Can be used both on its own and in collaboration with still or video formats.

• Reduces Cognitive load and helps memory retention

• Cost effective

• Audio can go where learners go and be done while doing other tasks, such as chores or driving.

• Radio audio can reach communities with limited web or other digital access

• Learners can feel connected through the instructor's tone, inflection, and stories that cannot be conveyed through text alone. 

Disadvantages

• Can be too minimal on its own, leading to confusion if learners need more context or a detailed explanation.

• Requires careful design; if not well structured, it may still overload learners or fail to highlight key information effectively.

• May not fully engage all learners, especially those who benefit more from hands-on, visual, or interactive learning experiences.

• Traditional radio broadcast for education require learners to be available at a specific time to hear the content.

• Since audio provides no visuals, it can be difficult to fully explain items such as charts, diagrams, mathematical equations, or technical skills that would benefit from a visual alongside the audio.

• Risks for students when they lack focus without visual cues or real-time check-ins from the instructor.

Suggestions for When to Use:

• Can the lesson be taught without visuals?

• Will learners be able to understand the verbal message?

Development Checklist:

Recommended Creation Tools:

Editing software:

• Adobe Audition: requires experience with editing and understanding controls

• Adobe Podcast: Can be used for local recording and mic check with AI audio cleanup 

• Audacity: Free but does have learning curve

• Zoom: Recording conversations, interviews and can compress audio.

• Riverside SquadCast: Record individual participants

Gear and Equipment

• Microphone: A dynamic USB microphone that can pick up less room noise

• Headphones: to monitor audio levels

• Pop filter or foam windscreen: To reduce spikes in audio

The ever-expanding use of Learning Management Systems (LMS), such as Blackboard, Canvas, and Moodle, enables educators to leverage technology for collaboration, quizzes, knowledge checks, and scaffolding learning. Interactive media, such as Kahoot and Poll Everywhere, allow students to use technology to interact with classmates and incorporate gamification. 

Some Rules of Thumb for the Medium

• 1. Use interactive media when learners need to apply, not just understand 

• 2. Keep interactions purposeful, not just added for engagement 

• 3. Ensure the level of interaction matches the complexity of the task 

Specific Media Format:

    Description 

Interactive media includes tools such as virtual discussions, scenario-based activities, simulations, and guided problem-solving exercises. These can be delivered through platforms like Microsoft Teams, LMS-based activities, or AI-supported tools.

Relating to Instructional Objectives

Interactive media is best aligned with objectives that require learners to demonstrate understanding, apply knowledge, analyze situations, or make decisions.

Characteristics:

• Requires learner participation

• Often scenario or decision-based

• Can be synchronous (live) or asynchronous

• Provides opportunities for feedback

Application to Types of Learning 

Cognitive Objectives.

Supports higher-level thinking such as applying, analyzing, and evaluating by requiring learners to engage with content and make decisions.

Psychomotor Objectives.

Can support skill development through guided simulations or practice scenarios, though may be limited compared to physical practice.

Affective Objectives.

Encourages engagement, confidence, and attitude development by allowing learners to connect content to real experiences.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Media Format

Advantages:

• 1. Increases engagement and participation 

• 2. Supports real-world application of knowledge 

• 3. Provides opportunities for immediate feedback and discussion 

Disadvantages

• 1. Can require more time to design and facilitate 

• 2. May depend on technology access or learner comfort with tools 

• 3. Can lose effectiveness if interactions are not well designed 

Suggestions for Use:

Use interactive media when learners need to practice decision-making, apply concepts, or engage in discussion. It is especially effective in leadership training, problem-solving scenarios, and situations where multiple perspectives add value.

Development Checklist:

• Does the interaction align with the learning objective?

• Is the level of interaction appropriate for the learner?

• Are instructions clear and easy to follow?

• Is feedback provided to guide learning?

• Is the technology accessible and easy to use?

Recommended Creation Tools:

• Microsoft Teams (live discussions, role-play scenarios)

• Zoom (breakout rooms, live interaction)

• Learning Management Systems (quizzes, branching scenarios, discussion boards)

• Articulate Storyline / Rise (interactive e-learning, branching scenarios)

• Adobe Captivate (simulations and interactive modules)

• Kahoot / Mentimeter / Poll Everywhere (live polling and engagement)

• Padlet / Miro (collaborative brainstorming and visual interaction)

• Google Forms / Microsoft Forms (interactive assessments and decision-based questions)

• H5P (interactive content such as quizzes, drag and drop, and scenario activities)

• Nearpod / Pear Deck (interactive presentations with embedded questions)

• Genially (interactive visuals and presentations)

• Microsoft Copilot or other AI tools (guided problem solving, scenario generation, practice prompts)

Physical objects and manipulatives are hands-on tools that learners can touch, move, assemble, or interact with directly. They’re especially useful for turning those abstract or complex ideas into something you can actually see, hold, and work with. This medium really shines when students need to practice a real skill, figure out how things fit together in space, or get that satisfying “ohhh, now I get it” moment.

Rules of Thumb for Choosing This Medium

• Use when the objective requires physical interaction, tactile feedback, or hands-on practice.

• Best for demonstrating processes, spatial relationships, or making abstract concepts more concrete.

• Pair with guidance or a quick demonstration — don’t assume learners will figure it out on their own.

• Keep materials simple, safe, and clearly tied to the objective so it doesn’t turn into a distraction.

• Works best in small-to-medium in-person settings; more challenging for large or fully remote groups

Relating to Instructional Objectives

Cognitive Objectives

• Helps learners move from abstract ideas to something concrete they can actually understand.

• Supports problem-solving through real hands-on interaction.

• Reinforces spatial relationships and how things are structured. 

Psychomotor Objectives

• The "bread and butter" for building coordination, accuracy, dexterity, and procedural memory.

• Lets learners practice and refine physical skills safely and repeatedly.

Affective Objectives

• Increases engagement and motivation through those satisfying hands-on “aha!” moments.

• Builds confidence and makes intimidating or technical topics feel a lot less scary.

Advantages

• Makes abstract concepts way more concrete and easier to understand.

• Encourages active participation and usually improves retention.

• Provides immediate, action-based feedback (the piece fits or it doesn’t — no guessing).

• Supports real-world skill transfer and is perfect for kinesthetic learners.

Disadvantages

• Requires time, space, setup, storage, and resources (cleanup can take time).

• More difficult to scale for large groups or remote/hybrid learning.

• Often needs solid instructor guidance to be truly effective.

• Can become distracting if it’s not clearly tied to the objective.

Best Practices

• Introduce manipulatives after key concepts have been presented — don’t lead with the toys.

• Provide clear instructions and a short demonstration first.

• Allow time for repetition, feedback, and a bit of free exploration.

• Set expectations early — these are tools, not toys.

• Combine with other media (video, visuals, or discussion) when it helps the learning stick.

• Think about safety, accessibility tweaks, and simple routines for setup and cleanup.

Common Manipulative Formats

• Real equipment or tools (realia)

• Physical models (scaled or simplified)

• Training kits or simulation props

• Low-tech materials (blocks, cards, counters, puzzles)

• 3D-printed or custom-built models

Recommended Creation / Sourcing Tools

• Real-world equipment or authentic training aids

• Commercial or instructor-created kits

• 3D printing for custom models

• Low-tech everyday materials (blocks, cards, clay, random household objects)

• Hybrid options (pair physical tools with digital simulations when needed)

Key Considerations

Manipulatives work best when they’re used intentionally and tied tightly to clear objectives. They aren’t meant to replace instruction — they support it. When paired with other media, they’re often what helps everything finally click and turn “I don’t get it” into “I’ve got this".

Still visuals, including diagrams, infographics, charts, and photos, put information into focused and concise visuals to aid comprehension and quick reference. Use these guidelines to decide when to use still images effectively in instructional content. 

Some Rules of Thumb for the Medium

• Use to summarize complex information concisely.

• Suitable for quick reference tools and infographics. 

• Combine with other media for enhanced learning. 

Specific Media Format Example:

Infographics - A structured visual that combines icons, text, and layout to present key information, concepts, or processes in a concise, easy to understand format. Infographics are designed to simplify complex information and support quick comprehension. Other examples: job aid, checklist, diagram, chart, graph,

Relating to Instructional Objectives

Still visuals (especially infographics) work best when objectives involve:

• Understanding relationships

• Summarizing key concepts

• Organizing information clearly

Application to Types of Learning 

Cognitive Objectives:

Highly effective for supporting understanding, organization, and recall of information through visual representation.

• Supports remembering and understanding

  • Helps with:

    • identifying key ideas

    • recognizing patterns

    • summarizing information

Example:
Learners review an infographic showing steps in a process or components of a system.

Psychomotor Objectives:

Limited direct application; useful as a supporting reference for visualizing steps, tools, or components prior to hands-on practice.

• Does not directly teach physical skills

  • Can support by:

    • showing labeled parts

    • providing visual reference before/after practice

Example:
Diagram of equipment parts before hands-on training.

Affective Objectives:

Moderately effective in capturing attention and reinforcing attitudes when designed with engaging and meaningful visuals.

• Can influence:

  • attention

    • interest

    • attitudes

Especially if:

• design is engaging and visuals are relatable

Example:
Infographic highlighting impact or importance of a topic (e.g., safety, ethics)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Media Format

AdvantagesDisadvantages

1. Quick and easy to grasp

2. Effective for summaries

3. Visually Engaging

1. Limited detail or depth

2. Not ideal for complex topics

3. May oversimplify information 

Development Checklist:

• Identify key information to summarize

• Use clear, simple visuals and avoid clutter

• Ensure alignment with instruction goals 

Recommended Creation Tools:

• Canva

• Microsoft PowerPoint

• Adobe Illustrator 

Text in any format has been the foundation for instructional design and the eventual teaching and learning segment. In the text format of any lesson plan, the reader can pace themselves as they read. It also aids clarity for those better equipped to understand written or typed material and supports learning processes.  The foundation of instructional design and the larger teaching-and-learning process has long been taught in any format. Written lessons give students more choice over how quickly they engage with the content, allowing them to pause, reread, or ponder as needed. This adaptability lessens cognitive stress and promotes deeper understanding. For those who process knowledge better through reading than through auditory or visual means, text-based training also improves clarity. Furthermore, written materials offer a consistent point of reference that students can return to during their educational journey, strengthening retention and promoting long-term mastery. Text is therefore still a crucial component of instructional design for accessibility, distinctiveness, and overall efficacy. 

Some Rules of Thumb for the Medium

• Clear

• Concise

• Structured

• Cognitive load considerations

Specific Media Format:

Text can be in any printed format, structured in ways that aid the learner in understanding and comprehending the lesson.

Description:

Text allows instructional designers to create a clear, concise form of communication. Lesson plans, when properly thought out and designed, should aid learners in meeting their needs, whether it be a specific objective or a rubric. Text is also the backbone for most other media formats.

Relating to Instructional Objectives

Characteristics

• Supports precise communication of learning goals and expectations

• Can be easily aligned with standards and objectives

• Allows for scaffolding through headings, chunking, and sequencing

• Provides permanent documentation of instruction

Application to Types of Learning:

• Text-based learning affects cognitive, affective, and psychometric(observable physical actions)

Cognitive Objectives

• Explaining concepts and theories

• Providing definitions and examples

• Supporting reading comprehension and critical thinking

• Guiding analysis through written prompts and questions

Psychomotor Objectives.

Text can provide different types of instructions, such as checklists, step-by-step procedures, and rubrics. Another way to look at Psychomotor Objective is through verbs such as operate, manipulate, demonstrate, etc.

Affective Objectives:

Because text is a foundational media type, it can be used in almost any learning style

Advantages and Disadvantages of Media Format

Advantages:

• Adaptable for screen readers

• Language translatable

• Easy to edit and update

• Can also be printed

• Text is especially effective for verbal skills such as describing, listing, and naming. 

Disadvantages

• Limits emotional response

• If poorly designed, it can overload the learner

• Can also limit those with reading disabilities

Suggestions for Use:

When learning objectives are needed, when a written (or typed) roadmap is needed, procedural-type lessons, when accompanying visual instructions support psychomotor-oriented tasks, etc.

Development Checklist:

• Make text understandable and clear, avoid excessive wording.

• Planned structure

• Drafted content

• Cognitive load

• Add in instructional elements

• Accessibility, minimizing reading to help students with weak reading abilities

• Supportive alignment

• Clear and concise

• Alignment of text begins from the top left

• Clearly readable font used (Sans Serif: Arial, Calibri, and Helvetica)

Recommended Creation Tools:

• Microsoft Office Suite written instructions

• Text on screen (HTML)

• Infographic tools (Canva, Vengage)

Video media integrates both moving visual and auditory channels to support learning through demonstration, explanation, and modeling. It is particularly effective in instructional settings where learners benefit from observing processes, behaviors, or real-world applications. Video enables consistent content delivery that can be accessed repeatedly, supporting in both initial learning and review of learning objectives.

Characteristics

• Combines motion, visuals, and audio to present information dynamically

• Can represent real-world scenarios or simulated environments

• Allows for pause, replay, and self-paced review

• May be synchronous (live) or asynchronous (recorded)

• Requires appropriate technology for access (device, bandwidth, platform)

Application to Types of Learning

Cognitive Objectives

• Demonstrate procedures or processes step-by-step

• Explain complex concepts through visual and verbal integration

• Support comprehension through examples and modeling

• Reinforce learning through repeated viewing

Psychomotor Objectives

• Model physical tasks or skills for learners to imitate

• Provide visual guidance for step-by-step performance

• Support skill development through observation and practice

Affective Objectives

• Influence attitudes through storytelling or real-world scenarios

• Increase engagement and motivation through relatable content

• Support emotional connection to content

Advantages

• Effective for demonstrating processes and real-world applications

• Engages multiple senses (visual and auditory)

• Can standardize instruction across learners

• Allows learners to review content multiple times

• Supports storytelling and contextual learning

Disadvantages

• Can promote passive learning if not paired with interaction

• Difficult to skim or quickly reference specific information

• Production can be time-consuming and resource-intensive

• May require strong internet access or technology

• Long or poorly designed videos can increase cognitive overload

• Live streaming video requires internet bandwidth and a media server.

• Traditional broadcast that requires vieweres to tune in at specific time can limit views or viewers may miss parts of content in a live event.

Best Practices

• Keep videos short and focused (microlearning approach when possible)

• Break longer content into smaller segments

• Clearly state objectives at the beginning

• Use captions and transcripts for accessibility

• Avoid unnecessary visuals or distractions

• Pair video with other media (text, visuals, or activities)

Common Video Media Formats

• Recorded lectures

• Instructional/tutorial videos

• Screen recordings (software demonstrations)

• Scenario-based or role-play videos

• Animated explainer videos

• Live-streamed instruction

Recommended Creation Tools

• Camtasia

• Adobe Express

• Powtoon

• Loom

When to Use Video

• Demonstrating a process or skill

• Modeling behavior or real-world scenarios

• Explaining complex concepts that benefit from visual support

• Providing consistent instruction across learners

Limitations to Consider

• Not ideal for quick reference or scanning

• Less effective in environments with distractions or limited access

• Should not be used as the sole medium for complex learning without support

Key Considerations

Video is most effective when used intentionally and supported by other instructional media. Combining video with text, visuals, or interactive elements can significantly improve comprehension and retention.